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The Middle East is one of the most ancient regions on Earth. The world’s first manmade cities were built here; Damascus, Syria, Jericho, Palestine, and Byblos, Lebanon.

For thousands of years, its historical legacy was protected not only by the governments and rulers of the territory but also by common citizens. However, the last century has witnessed the devastating destruction and looting of many archaeological sites in the Middle East.

The invasion of Iraq led by the US and Britain in 2003, destroyed invaluable historical sites and in an apparent disregard for history and cultural heritage, the US and Britain even built military bases atop archaeological wonders.

The Islamic State group (IS/ISIS) composed of members from various nationalities, including Europeans and Chechens, also played a devastating role in the destruction of these ancient sites both in Iraq and Syria. Coupled with airstrikes led by the Syrian government, many of the world’s most significant archaeological sites have suffered irreparable damage.

, Professor of Near East Archaeology at UCL, explained to ������ that recent conflicts have had a distinct and devastating impact on cultural heritage, with the deliberate targeting of historical sites emerging as a defining feature. This period of warfare, he noted, “differs from past conflicts in its attempt at cultural destruction.”

Mark also highlighted that widespread looting has added to the devastation. IS, in particular, has conducted one of the most organised and large-scale looting campaigns seen in recent times, significantly harming the region’s archaeological heritage.

Although restoration of these sites is ongoing, some archaeological experts have warned that the process may actually taint the original integrity and significance of the sites.

Mark told ������ that restoration efforts are progressing slowly in Iraq, with some limited work underway in Syria. He noted that Syria remains largely isolated from the West, which has constrained international involvement.

In Iraq, however, “There is active restoration and reconstruction of cultural and religious sites, with Western teams contributing through restoration, training, and excavation efforts, leading to many new archaeological discoveries,” he said.

Mark pointed out that in Syria, “Minor restoration work has occurred in government-held areas, but it remains very restricted. In Yemen, by contrast, virtually no restoration efforts have been initiated.”

Amid ongoing restoration efforts, ��������revisits the ancient sites of the Middle East and explores the impact of modern warfare on these historic cities.��

Babylon

Located in Iraq, Babylon was once celebrated as the “great city of the ancient world,” and��holds remnants of the .

The Babylonian Empire was renowned for its art, law, science and commerce. The Iraq war brought about a wave of destruction when British military bases were constructed on Babylon’s ancient ruins, damaging the foundations of Nebuchadnezzar’s historic buildings.

Mark explained that since 2003 exploration and research have continued, though restoration faces challenges due to limited funding and a high water table that complicates excavation in certain areas.

Palmyra

In Syria, Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage site, once linked the Roman Empire to the East and was famous for its grand Corinthian columns and temples. The city which has ancient roots dating back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE and has stood unperturbed ever since, became a target for ISIS in 2015.

Although international teams are using , Mark informed TNA that these efforts remain significantly restricted due to international sanctions on Syria.

Nineveh

Back in Iraq, Nineveh was the cradle of the ancient Assyrian Empire, adorned with gates, sculptures, and temples.

Nineveh was first destroyed by an amalgamation of various other nations including the Babylonians, the Medes and the Scythians in 612 BCE and then again by IS in 2015.

The Islamic State militants looted its treasures, in addition to defacing the historical walls and destroying its artefacts.

Mark informed ������ that although the site suffered extensive damage due to IS’s looting and destruction of monuments, foreign teams are conducting excavations there, leading to remarkable discoveries, and some restoration efforts are also underway.

Aleppo

Aleppo, one of the world’s oldest man-made cities, approximately 6000 BCE, has endured numerous invasions that shaped its landscape. However, the 2011 Syrian war wrought severe destruction upon Aleppo’s historic buildings and markets.

Mark stated that restoration of the damaged Old City area has been ongoing, but efforts are somewhat limited due to sanctions and the widespread poverty in Syria.

Even today, amid the ruins, fragments of Aleppo’s former splendour persist, reflecting its transition from a historical landmark into a symbol of resilience.

Mosul and Nimrud

Once the Assyrian Empire’s capital, the city of Mosul and nearby Nimrud in Iraq, have been heavily impacted by recent wars. One of the greatest losses was the of ziggurats and statues. Nimrud’s loss is particularly significant, as it marks a part of civilization that can never be fully recovered.

Mark stated that the Mosul Museum and many heritage sites in the Old City of Mosul were severely damaged or destroyed. However, restoration efforts are currently underway, and he noted that "Mosul serves as a relatively strong example of how local organisations collaborate with international bodies to support cultural preservation and restoration."

The Kingdoms of Sheba

In Yemen, remnants of the have been impacted by ongoing conflict, exposing the site to looting and bombing. According to Mark, although the Kingdom of Sheba has experienced intense conflict, a thorough damage assessment has not yet been conducted on the archaeological site.

“Given the recent violence in the region, there is a possibility of significant damage to the site due to ongoing fighting,” he added.��

Ur: Birthplace of civilisation

In southern Iraq, Mark says that , one of the world’s first urban centres and a cornerstone of Sumerian civilisation, was not affected by the most recent conflicts but had some minor damage and looting from the 2003 war.

Ugarit

, an ancient port city in present-day Syria, is notable for its contributions to writing systems but now faces threats from looting, conflict, and neglect as civil reconstruction priorities overshadow preservation.

Mark told ������ that Ugarit, located along the Syrian coast, has experienced relatively limited damage. While some minor looting pits are evident, the site has largely escaped the worst impacts of the Syrian war.

Hatra

Meanwhile, Hatra, a Parthian-era city in modern Iraq, suffered direct destruction by IS in 2015, erasing cultural landmarks. Mark expressed that in comparison to other sites, the extent of the damage was relatively limited.

“Restoration efforts are now underway, and the site has become accessible to some tourists once again," he explained.��

Gaza and Lebanon

The ongoing Israeli airstrikes on Gaza have damaged several important archaeological sites.

The Gaza Archaeological Museum was severely damaged along with valuable artefacts from the Bronze Age, Roman, and Ottoman periods.

Reports indicate damage was caused to , a key archaeological site from the Bronze Age located in the southern Gaza Strip.

Efforts to document and protect these sites have been hindered by the continuous airstrikes and the lack of international observers on the ground.

Meanwhile, the recent Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon posed a serious threat to one of the world’s oldest cities Baalbek, further endangering the region’s rich historical and cultural legacy.

Salwa Amor is an independent documentary maker. Most recently she was one of the producers of the award-winning BBC Panorama two-part series Children of Syria